This appendix gives examples of a range of species and products from many countries with some notes on their distribution, production and uses. It is arranged as below:
I. FOOD
A. Food direct1) Seeds and nutsB. Fodder
2) Fruits
3) Edible products from palms
4) Fungi
5) Animal protein
II. FOREST PRODUCTS PROVIDING EMPLOYMENT OR CASH INCOME
1) Bamboo
2)(a) Rosin and turpentine (naval stores)3) Tannin
(b) Resins and gums from broadleaved species
4) Tasar milk
5) Gum arabic
6) Medicinal and other economic plants
7) Raw material for the manufacture of handmade paper
III. FOREST PRODUCTS WHICH INCREASE LAND PRODUCTIVITY BY CROP DIVERSIFICATION
1) Honey and beeswax
2) Acacia senegal
3) Thea oleosa
4) Others
I. FOOD
A. Food direct1) Seeds and nuts
Anacardium occidentale provides the popular cashew nut and is also a species often introduced for windbreaks or firebreaks; it is an excellent source of nectar for beekeeping. Bertholettia excelsa, the source of the brazil nut which contains about 66 percent fat, 17 percent protein and 7 percent carbohydrates and vitamin B, originally from the Amazon forests, can reach a height of 30-50 m, a diameter of 1-2 m and yield 250-500 kg of nuts annually: the annual export of nuts from Brazil is 30 000-40 000 tons. Macadamia originally from Australia, yields up to 150 kg/ha/year of nuts. Castanea spp - the chestnut - (C. sativa in Europe, C. crenata in Japan, C. mollissima in China and C. dentata in North America) has had a very important role in the economies of several countries and particularly in France and Italy where the annual yields are as high as 2 000 kg/ha and 3 000/kg/ha, respectively. A large number of wild chestnut trees (Castanopsis spp) are found from India through to Indochina. Wild hazels are used for food particularly in Asia (Corylus chinensis, C. heterophylla). Pistachia vera is grown extensively in some regions of North Africa and the Near East for its nuts, and Ceratonia siliqua in semi-arid to sub-humid areas of North Africa produces a fruit which contains 40-50 percent of sugar. Canarium spp in southeast Asia and the Pacific region provides a nut which is eaten raw, cooked or salted. Edible pine kernels are obtained from Pinus pinea, P. cembra, P. gerardiana and P. koraiensis. Araucaria from Brazil, Chile, Australia and Papua New Guinea has several species which are highly appreciated because, of their edible seeds. Terminalia catappa and T. kaernbachii produce important cash crops of the sea almond.
2) Fruits
One of the best known examples is the bread fruit tree, Artocarpus incisus, which is planted for shade and for fruit; other species such as A. integra, A. nobilis and A. attitis provide edible fruit and seeds. The leaves arc used for fuel and the branches and stems are utilized for building and furniture. Another well-known source of edible fruit is the mango family, Mangifera indica being the most widely planted; besides the fruit, the young leaves of M. zeylanica are eaten as green salad. Another widely cultivated tree yielding edible fruit is Prosopis juliflora (algaroba, mosquito), originally from America but extensively introduced in Africa and Asia. At 4 years it gives substantial yields of algaroba beans which are cereal substitutes. The beans or pods also provide animal feed and the tree exudes gum of commercial quality, while the flowers are a satisfactory source of honey. Good varieties of algaroba provide up to 50 tons of flour per hectare annually. Similar yields of flour may be obtained from Ceratonia siliqua (carob or St. John’s bread), another species suitable for semi-arid zones (Sholto Douglas, 1972 (O)). Other trees yielding edible fruit which are widely cultivated belong to the genera Garcinia, Diospyros, Durio and Zizyphus. Some other widely distributed species which are well known for their fruit are Mammea africana, Tamarindus indica, Balanites aegyptiaca, Cordyla pinnata, Parinari macrophylla, Parkia biglobosa and Butyrospermum paradoxum. Special mention should be made of Adansonia digitata, known as the baobab; the fruit gives a pulp which can be powdered (cream of tartar) and mixed with milk for children; the seeds (2 000 per kg) provide oil and the young leaves are eaten as salad or cooked. There are also tree species which provide gum for cooking, such as Sterculia setigera and several Ficus spp.
3) Edible products from palms
A number of palm trees provide food and oil, among them Jessenia polycarpa and Orbignya mariana, originally from the Amazon basin. The buriti palm, Mauritia flexuosa, and the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) provide edible fruit, oil and shoots (hearts of palm). The sap of Borassus aethiopum is rich in sugar, palm wine may be produced from it, and the fruit may also be eaten. Phoenix paludosa also produces edible palm heart and the great palmetto-worm which is considered as a delicacy by some communities.
Euterpe edulis is a Brazilian palm which produces palmito palm heart which may be exported. In 1975 exports from Brazil reached 7 012 223 kg at US$ 1 294/ton, the internal market being three to four times the exports. The edible portion of the plant, the palmito constitutes 50 percent of the stem, the rest of it being utilized for both poles and pulpwood.
Sago palm (Metroxylon sagu, M. rumphii, M. salomonense) produces a starch extracted from the pith of the trunk.
4) Fungi
With their quantities of decaying litter, forests support many fungi, some of them edible. There are also many tree species that harbour mycorrhizal fungi on their roots, and, where there is a choice of the latter, it may be possible to introduce edible strains onto nursery stock. Because of the fear of poisonous fungi, many people do not eat any species, or limit their attention to one or two; the existence of a local tradition of fungus eating is necessary if any hopes are to be placed on this resource. Even where such a tradition exists, fungi do not constitute a major food source in terms of calories or protein. The greatest contribution they can make to a village economy is by providing an expensive delicacy that can be marketed. Many species can be dried and thus require little outlay for preservation and packing.
Some of the main mushrooms which are cultivated are Lentinus edodee in Japan, Volvariella volvacea in China and the oak and black mushrooms in the Republic of Korea. Since ancient times the Greeks and the Romans have cultivated Pholiota aererita on poplar. In France most of the oak forests in the Massif Central are now oriented towards the production of Melanosporum truffles. The price of truffles is around US$ 80/kg and its cultivation may produce higher returns than lumbering. In Italy another variety of truffle has been successfully inoculated on the roots of Pinus strobus. The Japanese fungi, shiitake, has been tried successfully in wood residues in Chile, the prospects of producing it with residues of Nothofagus dombei being quite attractive since this fungi species multiplies 300 percent in a period of 5 years and the international price is US$ 14 per kg. Mushrooms represent a very important source of income in the Republic of Korea, their cultivation being promoted by the Village Forestry Associations. The 1977 exports of pine mushrooms amounted to about US £9 million and oak mushrooms to about US$ 6 million.
5) Animal protein
Traditionally rural communities have depended on forest lands as a source of animal protein. A great variety of animals is still being consumed, ranging from insects, reptiles, amphibians to fish, birds, and mammals. Unfortunately, conventional nutrition and socio-economic surveys have often underestimated, or even ignored, the impact of wild-life on the day-to-day life of rural people. However, although accurate data have yet to be obtained, it is clear from the indications of limited in-depth studies that wildlife and fish constitute the principal sources of animal protein in many rural areas, particularly those where there are constraints to domestic livestock husbandry. In Africa, surveys have been carried out in Ghana and Nigeria which showed that as much as 70 percent of locally produced meat may come from wild animals, particularly from some of the smaller types, such as grasscutters (Thryonomys spp), hares (Lepus spp), giant rat (Cricetomys gamlianus), snails and insects. In South America the capybara, a giant rodent weighing between 40 and 60 kg, has long been the object of intense exploitation. In Argentina they are hunted, everywhere for their meat and hides, while several ranches in Venezuela raise them commercially.
Equally, in Asia many rural communities utilize wild animals, as food, but other products from wildlife do contribute to the development of local communities. A typical example is the management of deer for the production of antlers. The average yield of antler is 2 kg per stag, which dried can be sold for US$ 200-250/kg. In Papua New Guinea juvenile crocodiles are captured in the wild for rearing in village pens until they attain optimum size for skinning.
In order to set figures for a sustainable harvesting from the various wildlife species in an area, whether for food or other animal products, an assessment of their populations must be made. This assessment must be of a dynamic nature that not only estimates population series, but also the distribution of the species within the habitat. With such information it is then possible to set quotas for harvesting and select the most appropriate methods and times for carrying it out.
The processing of wildlife for food meets with many constraints imposed by health and veterinary regulations in some countries. While harvesting of wildlife remains on a traditional basis, there is usually no problem, but once it becomes official, regulations and restrictions designed to cater for domestic livestock can come into play and preclude the adoption of traditional methods of meat preservation. With this in mind, the easiest procedure for the preservation of meat in tropical situations is an adaptation of the traditional drying/smoking techniques.
Fish production in swamp or mangrove forests is an important protein source. Mangrove and swamp forests offer a most valuable protective habitat to fish. In the Tonlesap area, Democratic Kampuchea, during the high flooding period, the fish population disperses in the surrounding swamp forest which provides food for them to develop very rapidly. Fish production there was said to be 10 times more than the Atlantic fishing grounds (10 t/km2 as compared to 1 t/km2). The mangrove serves mainly as an area in which many marine organisms breed; for example, fish molluscs or crustacea which play an important part in the local economy and diet. The mangrove forests in the Ganges delta and in the Indochinese and Malaysian peninsula are particularly rich in fish, mussels and shrimps, which give rise to a flourishing industry. Deterioration of the mangrove forest ecosystems means deterioration of the foodweb and breeding grounds for marine organisms and this will cause a decrease in fish production.
B. Fodder
The foliage or fruit of many tree species may be collected and used for animal fodder, either raw or after simple processing.
Species for fodder production should meet the following requirements:
- adaptability: the species should have the ability to establish and maintain itself In the selected environment;
- palatability: a fodder species, be it a tree or a shrub, should be readily accepted by animals. Palatability varies from one animal species to another and is influenced by the inter-relationship of plant, animal and environmental factors;
- nutritive value: palatability influences feed intake, but some plants may be of low nutritional value even if their palatability is high. This means that besides palatability and resultant feed intake, fodder plants should have high levels of various nutrient components of which protein is considered to be the most important. This nutrient is usually recorded as crude protein. Acacia arabica pods and leaves contain 15 percent crude protein. Leaves of some other species contain as much as 20 percent of crude protein (Albizia lebbeck, Prosopis specifera);
- production and growth: production of substantial amounts of fodder in the early years after planting is an important economic consideration. In the Near East and North Africa areas, this requirement was satisfactorily met by using fast-growing and high-yielding drought-resistant genera such as Atriplex, Opuntia and Acacia;
- resistance to utilization: fodder species can be grazed either directly or indirectly (lopping, cut-and-carry method). The capacity of the species to recover quickly by producing new buds from the browsed and cut stems is important;
- not harmful to animals when eaten: toxicity possibilities should he carefully checked before trees are introduced to provide animal fodder.
II. FOREST PRODUCTS PROVIDING EMPLOYMENT OR CASH INCOME
1) Bamboo
Several species of bamboo are widely cultivated in many countries, mainly in southeast Asia. The various species have innumerable uses: shoots for human consumption, fodder for horses, building material, furniture, fishing poles, pulpwood, fibre for paper-making, in addition to their role in windbreaks, riverbank stabilization and erosion control. A valuable and expensive medicine, tabashee, is found in the joints of several species, Melocanna bambusoides being one. The most popular species in cultivation are Phyllostachys edulis and P. pubescens. In temperate climates, Phyllostachus spp may yield annually up to 15 m3/ha whereas with tropical species such as Dendrocalamus, Bambusa and Melocanna, the yield is lower. Bamboo shoots, if canned and exported, provide a good source of income. A market for the canned shoots is readily available in America and Western Europe where demand is higher than supply. Properly fertilized and managed, one hectare of bamboo can yield annually from 500 kg - 1 ton of shoots in addition to 2 or 3 tons of dry bamboo. Bamboo cultivation can bring a good annual income to farmers 3 or 4 years after planting.
2)(a) Rosin and turpentine (naval stores)
Pines (Pinus spp) produce an exudate from the cambium region when they are injured. This exudate is a complex mixture of terpenes and fatty acids and is known as crude gum. This gun can be refined to produce turpentine and rosin which are important commercial products. Pine species vary in their yield of gum. Important commercial species are P. elliottii, P. palustris, P. silvestris and P. merkusii, but many other pine species are used in specific areas. Yields must be found by experiment.
The refining of the crude gum is not difficult, but requires a certain minimum quantity to make an installation economic. If refining facilities are not available in a country, marketing of the crude gum might be difficult. The prices of rosin and turpentine on the world market are subject to considerable fluctuation and must be carefully taken into account in considering the value of gum tapping. The industry has the advantage for developing countries in that it is labour intensive and requires a minimum capital investment to produce crude gum. The refining operation is not complex technically, but significant investment is required to build a refinery of economic size.
(b) Resins and gums from broadleaved species
Many broadleaved species, specially those from the tropics, yield marketable resins and gums. Notable examples are the Acacia spp which yield gum arabic, Dipterocarpus spp which yield damar-type resins and Manilkara spp which yield balata.
As with the naval stores industry, collection of resins is labour intensive and usually requires very little capital investment. Generally, resins are exported in their crude form as collected, to be worked up in the larger centres of consumption. In some cases, however, resins have traditional local uses and this should always be encouraged, since it reduces the need for imported industrial products.
3) Tannin
Tannins are complex polyphenolic substance found in the bark, wood and seeds of certain trees. They are mainly used for the preserving of leather but smaller quantities are used for dying and in chemical industries. There are two broad types of tannins: the hydrolysable tannins and the condensed tannins. Both are used for tannage. Tannins are produced commercially by extracting the soluble tannin with water from the ground or chipped wood or bark and then evaporating the water to produce the solid tannin or, in some cases, a concentrated solution for direct industrial use.
Some species which produce industrial tannins are the bark of acacia species, specially Acacia mearnsii (black wattle), the fruit pods of Acacia nilotica, the bark of various mangrove species (Rhizophora, Avicennia, etc.), bark of oak (Quercus spp), chestnut (Castanea spp), and the wood and leaves of certain eucalypts (E. redunca, E. exserta), the wood of quebracho (Quebracho colorado), and the bark of certain pines, specially Pinus radiata. To be economic, at least 10 percent yield of tannin in the wood or bark is required; the species listed give yields of 10-30 percent of tannin.
Where the tannin is required directly for use in tanning leather at the village level, it is practical to harvest bark or wood and make an extract of tannin from the chipped material. A tanning liquor of sufficient strength is then prepared and used directly. Preparation of solid tanning extracts for the market is complex and technically difficult and should not be attempted on a small scale.
4) Tasar silk
Host commercial silk is produced by the domestically reared caterpillar larvae Bombys mori which must be fed exclusively on the leaves of white and black mulberry trees (Morus spp). However, raw material comes increasingly from the so-called tasar silkworms that feed on the leaves of a variety of trees of tropical, sub-tropical and temperate zones. Tasar silk, having uneven tan filaments which are coarser, stronger and shorter than the normal cultivated silk, has been produced for centuries by upland and forest tribes.
Tasar silk culture is known as wild or forest sericulture, the silk being secreted by several species of the genus Antheraea (Saturniidae), 36 species and 40 forms being recorded. A. mylitta is at present the only species exploited commercially in the tropics. The temperate tasar insect is an interspecific hybrid, A. proylei; it produces the finest tasar silk.
The tropical A. mylitta feeds primarily on Terminalia tomentosa, T. arjuna, Shorea robusta, but also on two dozen other species, including Zizyphus mauritiana, Terminalia paniculata, Anogeissus latifolia, Syzigium cumini, Careya arborea, Lagerstroemia parvifolia and Hardwickia binata. The temperate hybrid A. proylei is mainly reared on oaks - Quercus serrata, Q. incana, Q. dealbata and Q. himalayana.
5) Gum arabic
Of the many species of Acacia, only A. senegal and A. laeta secrete gum arabic, a substance in which there has been an active trade for over 2 000 years. Gum arabic is used in medicine, in textile and food industries and in the preparation of paints and printing ink.
The gum is tapped during the dry season by cutting and peeling a piece of bark on the branches, 2-3 cm wide and 30-40 cm long; the gum leaks out three weeks later and a ball of 5-10 cm in size is formed. The average number of balls per tree is 10-15, and the yield per tree is 100-200 grams, maximum production being obtained from trees between 7 and 15 years old. (Booth, 1966 (O); Giffard, 1975 (O)).
6) Medicinal and other economic plants
The health of a very large proportion of the population of developing countries - said to be as high as 84 percent in India and Pakistan - depends almost exclusively on indigenous medicines, and there is a rapidly increasing global use of homeopathic drugs that gives medicinal plants very good prospects for development. Careful survey and research should be made of the plants existing in the forest, including the systematic study of their clinical, pharmacological, toxicological, chemical and pharmacognistic aspects, in view of their commercial exploitation.
In order to avoid the possible extermination of plant species by too thorough collection of wild-growing specimens, specially when the reproductive structures are collected, it is convenient to: i) cultivate the plant in enclosures, setting aside areas in the forest where cultivation and eventual irrigation can be done profitably; ii) propagate the plant in its natural wild habitat, closing certain areas for collection; iii) induce the peasants to leave behind a remnant of the root system of the plant (as is done with ipecacuanha in Brazil) and limit the size of plants which are harvested.
There are several thousand species of trees and shrubs which are of economic interest for pharmacological and broad chemical purposes. In India alone over 700 species have been identified and described (Kanny, 1973 (O)). Some of the most appreciated medicinal plants in the world market, which may be planted and cultivated are: Artemisia mantina, A. vulgaris, Colchicum lutem, Digitalis purpurea, Atropa belladona, Crocus sativum (saffron), Coriandrum sativum, Cephaelis acuminata (ipecacuanha). Foeniculum vulgare (fennel) and Zingiber officinale (ginger).
Plants yielding dyes can also be of interest in community forestry, such as the indigo (Indigophera spp) which has a large export market and is being increasingly planted in El Salvador. Spices may also be a source of income to the community; Cardamon, which produces a spice with a vary large market is cultivated in Sri Lanka under forest canopy.
7) Raw material for the manufacture of handmade paper
A great shortage of paper for educational purposes exists in the rural areas of many developing countries. At least part of this need could be met by the local communities themselves producing handmade papers which could be used for school exercise books and other writing purposes.
Its manufacture requires a minimum amount of chemicals, equipment and skills for developing a production of low grade papers. Because the whole operation would be manual, it would be labour-intensive, with no outside power source required.
The necessary fibrous raw materials could be supplied by local forests. Bark from some woody plants such as Broussonetia papyrifera could be used while bamboo, palm leaves, banana stalks, reed and grasses would provide plentiful raw material for the purpose.
In the Republic of Korea, villages produce handmade wallpaper made out of kudzu grass, particularly for export. The revenues for 1977 were estimated to be US 3 27 million.
III. FOREST PRODUCTS WHICH INCREASE LAND PRODUCTIVITY BY CROP DIVERSIFICATION
1) Honey and beeswax (Crane, 1975 (O); Razafindrakoto, 1972 (O); Smith, 1960 (O)).
The most universal non-fibre crop of tropical and subtropical forests is undoubtedly honeycomb, a convenient combination of honey, a valuable and much desired carbohydrate food, and beeswax, an exportable cash crop. Beekeeping is an industry well suited to developing countries, requiring little capitalization and making virtually no demands on natural resources. It may be carried on in conjunction with subsistence or modern agriculture at any convenient scale of operation.
Beekeeping should not be considered as an isolated industry, but rather as an integral part of a forest management system which utilizes an otherwise wasted forest resource.
The total amount of honey and beeswax produced from a given area of land depends on (a) the nectar and pollen yield of plants in the area, (b) the foraging ability of the bees, (c) the number of bees, and (d) the weather, which determines how plant and bee potential can be realized. Of this total production, the partition between the bees and the beekeeper depends on environment and management. In poor areas with no management the beekeeper harvests less than 5 percent of the total production; in good areas with modern management, 30-40 percent of the total production may be harvested. With a given bee, in a given environmental situation, the harvest production of bees can be dramatically increased by the introduction of minor improvements in the equipment and management skills of the beekeepers.
With traditional, fixed combhives honey yields rarely exceed 7 kg/hive and the average is much less. The world average in honey production with modern framehives is 15-20 kg, though in some countries such as Australia, average yields of 200 kg/colony and even as high as 350 kg are consistently reported. Recently several designs of “transitional” hives have been developed for labour-intensive management which incorporate the moveable comb advantages of the framehive without the complexity and cost of manufacture.
Experience to date indicates that honey yields with these hives can be almost as high as yields with framehives, though handling cannot toe easily mechanized. The ratio of beeswax to honey production in traditional hives is 1:15; it is much lower in framehives using modern honey extraction methods.
There are several species and many ecotypes of bees which are presently ‘kept’ in the tropics and subtropics. Bees are not domestic animals in the conventional sense in that they cannot be kept in captivity. It is impossible for the beekeeper to prevent introduced bees from breeding with wild stock. The first stage in the development of beekeeping programmes is therefore the introduction of improved equipment designs and the development of management skills suitable for the indigenous bees. The gradual replacement of indigenous stock with improved varieties to develop easier to manage strains may then be considered. In areas where no indigenous honeybees exist, carefully selected improved stock may be Introduced.
A knowledge of the nectar and pollen source plants in the area is necessary before initiating a beekeeping programme. Since the knowledge of melliferous plants of the tropical and subtropical forests is at present limited, the best source of information is usually the local traditional beekeeper. Crane (1975 (O)) has recently summarized the most important 150 honey-producing plants of the world. In Central and South America the most important trees presently utilized are: Roystonea spp, Piscidia piscipula, Gymnopodium antigonoides, Haematoxylon campechianum, and Citrus spp. In Africa Citrus spp, Eucalyptus spp, Brachystegia spp, Julbernardia spp and Acacia spp are most important, while in Asia Tilia spp and Nephelium litchi produce most of the marketed honey. There are many other melliferous trees which have not been mentioned due to their more restricted distribution.
When planting multipurpose trees, it is possible to take into account bees in several ways: a) Firstly, species or provenances which produce plentifully, high quality nectar can be selected. Host eucalypts are good sources of honey if selected for the right ecological zone. For instance, E. maidenii and E. paniculata are best in certain semi-arid zones while E. saligna and E. grandis yield small quantities of low quality honey under the same conditions. Prosopis juliflora can be a good source of nectar in semi-arid zones. b) Secondly, species which bloom at different times can be planted adjacently to extend the honey production period. c) Thirdly, the beneficial effects of bees in pollinating fruit and nut crops can be catered for by planning appropriate apiary sites in the plantations.
The capital outlay for beekeeping is very small with traditional hives made out of straw, hollowed logs, tree bark, clay or reeds which require only the labour of the bee-keeper to construct. One man may manage up to 50 hives part-time with an investment of US$ 25-30 for protective clothing and a smoker and an equivalent amount for honey containers. Modern framehives may cost as much as US$ 25-40 per unit and may or may not be used with modern honey extracting equipment which could be shared amongst several bee-keepers in a village. Transitional hives vary in cost from US$ 5-15 depending on the materials used and the skills locally available for manufacture. The early stages of a beekeeping development programme should combine an intensification of traditional beekeeping with the introduction of modern equipment and methods.
2) Acacia senegal
This tree, as well as yielding gum arabic as discussed in II (5), provides fodder, fuelwood and poles, and tannin is obtained from the bark. It is a nitrogen-fixing species valuable in soil rehabilitation.
3) Thea oleosa
This plant has a wide adaptation to varying climatic and ecological conditions provided the site is below 33° parallel north, 800 m in altitude with a rainfall of 700 mm.. It begins to yield after 4-5 years and thrives for 100 years. Each hectare of T. oleosa can yield annually 75 kg of oil and 225 kg of oilcake which serves as feed for pig raising. Refuse from pigs is a good fertilizer, increasing the yield of agricultural crops. Hundreds of thousands of hectares of T. oleosa are now planted in China.
4) Others
Among a wide range of species which have multipurpose uses and which have not been mentioned previously are the following: Argania spinosa from Morocco which provides fuel-wood, leaves suitable for fodder and a nut that yields edible oil. Leucaena leucocephala which is nitrogen-fixing and yields fuelwood, poles and fodder, and is also used for land boundaries in northern Thailand. Sesbania aculeata, which is a semi-annual legume and is nitrogen-fixing, provides green manure for land reclamation of both saline and alkaline areas, its seeds, leaves and branches are suitable for fodder; the seeds yield gum for industrial use; and it produces bast fibre for cordage and first-grade short-fibre pulp for paper and rayon manufacture. Sesbania grandiflora is nitrogen-fixing; it provides poles and is good for pulping; the bark produces tannin and the flowers are eaten as a vegetable. Tamarindus indica is a good shade tree and provides construction wood as well as leaves and fruit for human consumption; the pulp of the fruit has several medicinal uses.
